Oregonleatherboy: 2026-01-04

Hypnosis, Placebo, and Expectancy

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Hypnosis as "Placebo without Deception"

Comparisons have been drawn,
with hypnosis
described as
"placebo without deception"
(Wickless and Kirsch, 1989;
Kirsch, 1999;
Raz, 2007;
Kirsch et al., 2008,).

Bald man with glowing Blue eyes in a dark room surrounded by hypnotized men wearing a leather blazer and smoking a cigar

Expectancy's Role

Both hypnosis and placebo effects are influenced by expectancy
(Kirsch, 1999,;
Benedetti, 2009;
Lifshitz et al., 2012,).

Expectancy plays a larger role in placebo effects and in response to more difficult hypnotic suggestions (Benham et al., 1998;
Kirsch et al., 1999, ).

Handsome man with mesmerizing blue eye wearing leather jacket blowing thick hypnotic cigar smoke

Distinction between Hypnosis and Placebo
Despite similarities,
placebo suggestibility
and
hypnotic/imaginative
suggestibility
do not correlate
(Kihlstrom, 2008, ),
suggesting they are
distinct entities
in some aspects.

Cigar smoking man with glowing eyes in a dark room surrounded by a brainwashed hypnotized men

Wickless & Kirsch (1989)

Effects of verbal and experiential expectancy manipulations on hypnotic susceptibility

🔗 PDF / free preview

(Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1989):

• PDF (copy on CORE / academic site): https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/77614693.pdf

(scroll to Wickless & Kirsch 1989) (semanticscholar.org)

Alternate info: The original paper appears as:

Wickless C., & Kirsch I. (1989) Effects of verbal and experiential expectancy manipulations on hypnotic susceptibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(4), 762–768. (BSCAH)

Kirsch (1999)

There are two commonly-cited Kirsch (1999) publications relevant here (often confused). Both are central to his hypothesis/placebo and expectancy theory.

a. Clinical hypnosis as a nondeceptive placebo (chapter in edited volume):

🔗 PDF of Kirsch 1999 https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~jfkihlstrom/PDFs/2000s/2008/Hypnosis_NashBarn08.pdf

(scroll for Kirsch in 1999 section) (Raz Lab)

Kirsch, I. (1999). Clinical hypnosis as a nondeceptive placebo. In I. Kirsch et al., Clinical Hypnosis and Self-Regulation, APA. (Raz Lab)

b. Hypnosis and placebos: response expectancy as a mediator of suggestion effects

🔗 PDF of Kirsch 1999 https://www.um.es/analesps/v15/v15_1pdf/10h08kirsch.pdf (Universidad de Murcia)

Raz (2007)

Often-cited related paper:

Kirsch, I., Mazzoni, G., & Montgomery, G.H. (2007). Remembrance of hypnosis past. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 49(171–178).

🔗 PubMed entry

(with DOI link to full text):

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17265971/ (PubMed)

Raz’s named work in this field:

Raz, A. (2007). Hypnosis: A twilight zone of the top-down variety. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 555–557.

🔗 Nature review (citation page): https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn3538 – look for Raz 2011 (note: this sources lists 2007 Raz) (Nature)

(Full Raz 2007 article PDF may require institutional access.)

Kirsch et al. (2008)

Expectancy and suggestibility: are the effects of environmental enhancement due to detection?

🔗 PubMed link (with DOI access):

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9889486/ (PubMed)

Alternative free PDF:

• Frontiers article listing it & DOI (scroll for Kirsch, Wickless & Moffitt,

2008): https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00415/epub (Frontiers)

Kirsch et al. (1999)

Kirsch, Wickless & Moffitt (1999) paper, see #4 above (Int J Clin Exp Hypn 47, 40–45). The 1999 date is for publication year, even though PDF references sometimes list 2008 in meta contexts. (PubMed)

(Note: Braffman & Kirsch (1999) “Imaginative suggestibility and hypnotizability: An empirical analysis” is also often cited but not in your list—here’s the DOI if you want it: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.3.578 (Nature))

Kihlstrom (2008)

Book chapter:

Kihlstrom, J. F. (2008). The domain of hypnosis, revisited. In The Oxford Handbook of Hypnosis: Theory, Research and Practice, eds. Nash & Barnier.

🔗 Full-text PDF: https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~jfkihlstrom/PDFs/2000s/2008/Hypnosis_NashBarn08.pdf (Open Computing Facility)

Quick List of URLs

Study	Free / PubMed / DOI Link
Wickless & Kirsch (1989)	https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/77614693.pdf (semanticscholar.org)
Kirsch (1999) placebo chapter	https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~jfkihlstrom/PDFs/2000s/2008/Hypnosis_NashBarn08.pdf (Raz Lab)
Kirsch (1999) placebo article	https://www.um.es/analesps/v15/v15_1pdf/10h08kirsch.pdf (Universidad de Murcia)
Raz (2007) review	https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17265971/ (PubMed)
Kirsch et al. (1999/2008)	https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9889486/ (PubMed)
Kihlstrom (2008) Oxford Handbook	https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~jfkihlstrom/PDFs/2000s/2008/Hypnosis_NashBarn08.pdf (Open Computing Facility)

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A line of bald men wearing leather blazers the first one has a man under his arms kissing his neck while he smokes a cigar

PFC's Role in Suggestion
The prefrontal cortex (PFC)
plays a crucial role
in suggestion,
particularly in the

control of

thought
and behavior
(Miller and Cohen, 2001,
; Asp et al., 2012,).

Two men with glowing mesmerized eyes one smoking a cigar and the other licking his lips from the side

Vulnerability to Suggestion
Individuals with
still-developing
prefrontal cortices
(children)
or those
experiencing PFC atrophy
(older adults)
are more
susceptible to suggestion
(Ceci et al., 1987;
Cohen and Faulkner,1989;
Bruck and Ceci, 1995, {PDF}).

A man smoking a cigar staring into another man's face about to kiss him blowing smoke and his eyeballs

Damage to the
PFC
can also make
individuals
more
vulnerable to
misleading information
(Damasio, 1994;
Asp et al., 2012,).

Two men with glowing hypnotized eyes one with a cigar and his mouth and the other kissing his lips

Hypoactivity vs. Hyperactivity
Research using
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
suggests that
hypnotic suggestibility
increases
when the
PFC is hypoactive,
while placebo effects
require PFC involvement
(Dienes and Hutton, 2013,).

Black and white with two bearded guys one has rope around the other's hand surrounded by a bunch of goons

However, some studies also
show increased
frontal activity
in
highly
hypnotizable
individuals
in response to
certain suggestions
(Crawford et al., 1993,).

Hypnosis, Placebo, and Expectancy

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Hypnosis as "Placebo without Deception"

Comparisons have been drawn,with hypnosisdescribed as"placebo without deception" (Wickless and Kirsch, 1989;Kirsch, 1999; Raz, 2007;Kirsch et al., 2008,).

Expectancy's Role

Both hypnosis and placebo effects are influenced by expectancy (Kirsch, 1999,;Benedetti, 2009;Lifshitz et al., 2012,). Expectancy plays a larger role in placebo effects and in response to more difficult hypnotic suggestions (Benham et al., 1998;Kirsch et al., 1999, ).

Distinction between Hypnosis and Placebo

Wickless & Kirsch (1989)

Kirsch (1999)

Raz (2007)

Kirsch et al. (2008)

Kirsch et al. (1999)

Kihlstrom (2008)

Quick List of URLs

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The Prefrontal Cortex and Suggestibility

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PFC's Role in Suggestion

Vulnerability to Suggestion

Hypoactivity vs. Hyperactivity

However, some studies alsoshow increasedfrontal activityinhighly hypnotizable individualsin response tocertain suggestions(Crawford et al., 1993,).

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Comparisons have been drawn,
with hypnosis
described as
"placebo without deception"
(Wickless and Kirsch, 1989;
Kirsch, 1999;
Raz, 2007;
Kirsch et al., 2008,).

Both hypnosis and placebo effects are influenced by expectancy
(Kirsch, 1999,;
Benedetti, 2009;
Lifshitz et al., 2012,).

Expectancy plays a larger role in placebo effects and in response to more difficult hypnotic suggestions (Benham et al., 1998;
Kirsch et al., 1999, ).

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However, some studies also
show increased
frontal activity
in
highly
hypnotizable
individuals
in response to
certain suggestions
(Crawford et al., 1993,).

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